Indus Valley Civilization 2500 B.C.E.

 

Indus Valley Civilization 2500 B.C.E.

  • IVC flourished in around 2500 BCE, in the western part of South Asia, whose major part lies in present Pakistan & Western India.
  • Indus Valley Civilization was one of the four largest ancient urban civilizations, namely – Egypt, Mesopotamia, India & China.

Indus Valley Civilization: Discovery

  • The Archaeological Department of India carried out excavations of the Indus Valley in the 1920s, in which the ruins of the two oldest cities of IVC, namely Mohenjodaro & Harappa were unearthed.
  • After the discovery of Harappa by Daya Ram Sahni in 1921, John Marshall, the Director-General of the ASI, announced that an urban civilization existed in the Indus Valley region in around 2500 BCE.

Indus Valley Civilization: Geographical Extent

  • Geographically, Indus Valley Civilization covered Punjab, Sindh, Balochistan, Rajasthan, Gujarat and, Western Uttar Pradesh.
  • It extended from Sutkagendor (in Balochistan, Pakistan) in the West to Alamgirpur (Western UP) in the East; & from Mandu (Jammu) in the North to Daimabad (Ahmednagar, Maharashtra) in the South.
  • Some Indus Valley sites have also been found as far away as Afghanistan and Turkmenistan.
  • Also, the Pre-Harappan civilization found in Mehrgarh, Pakistan shows the first evidence of cotton cultivation.

Important Sites of Indus Valley Civilization

  • This civilization had many prominent sites in both Pakistan – Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Amri & India – Kalibangan, Lothal, Surkotada, Banawali, Chhanhudaro, and Dholavira.

Features of the Indus Valley Civilization Society

  • IVC Society was urban in nature & was mainly divided into 3 sections à An elite class living in the citadel region on the western part of town, middle-class inhabitants (or rich merchants) & a relatively weaker section (labourers) living in the lower towns.
  • There was a division of labour and the IVC Society was diversified and stratified.
  • The people were scholars, artisans, traders, warriors, and businessmen.
  • IVC Society is considered to be matriarchal in nature as a large number of terracotta (fire-baked earthen clay) female figurines have been found from various sites which represent the worship of the Great Mother Goddess.
  • The dressing style of both men & women of the Indus Valley Civilization is also indicated in the terracotta & stone sculptures.
  • Men are mostly shown wearing a dress wrapped around the lower half of the body with one end worn over the left shoulder & under the right arm.
  • Garments in Indus Valley Civilization were made from various materials like cotton, silk, wool, etc.
  • Also, the presence of woven cloth at Mohenjodaro indicates that the IVC inhabitants were well acquainted with spinning and weaving.

Techno-Cultural Aspects of the Civilization

  • Its inhabitants mainly used copper and bronze and were unaware of the use of iron.
  • Harappans obtained copper from the Khetri copper mines in Rajasthan & Tin was possibly brought from Afghanistan.
  • Harappans were generally peace-loving and had not many arms and weapons in their kitty.
  • Several objects with ‘Textile Impressions’ have also been discovered.
  • Huge brick structures found in various sites indicate the existence of a class of masons was there & that brick-laying was an important craft.
  • IVC inhabitants also practised boat-making, bead-making & seal-making.
  • Bead-making shops have been excavated from Chanhudaro & Lothal.
  • IVC seals were mainly made of steatite which is a kind of soft stone.
  • Some seals were also made of gold, ivory, chert, agate, etc & it was mainly used for trade purposes.

Jewellery of Indus Valley Civilization

  • The presence of goldsmiths was there which made jewellery of silver, gold & precious stones.
  • Ornaments like necklaces, bracelets, pendants, brooches have been excavated.

  • IVC inhabitants also extensively used pottery, in which the most characteristic one was both glossy & shiny.
  • The redware pottery painted with black designs was popular, and items like jars, plates, bowls & pots of different sizes were made from pottery.

  • The people of the Indus valley civilization were aware of Bronze mirrors, Ivory Combs, and antimony rods but not hair dyes.
  • A large number of terracotta figurines and toys of carts, bulls, elephants, monkeys, chariots, and whistles existed.
  • Discovery of Bronze Dancing Girl Sculpture from Mohenjodaro, and Steatite Bearded Man from Mohenjodaro are some of the finest examples of Indus Valley Civilization’s cultural finesse.
  • The Steatite Bearded Man has an embroidered cloak over his left shoulder and his eyes are half-closed indicating a posture of meditation.

Bronze Dancing Girl Sculpture Steatite Bearded Man

Political Aspects of the Indus Valley Civilization

  • The evidence of political organization isn’t found and hence it can’t be concluded which kind of political organization was followed in Indus Valley Civilization.
  • Some archaeologists believe that Harappan society had no rulers and that everybody enjoyed equal status.
  • Another theory argues that there was no single ruler, but a number of rulers representing each of the urban centres.
  • However, the uniformity in tools, weapons, bricks, seals & urban style of construction indicates a presence of a centralized political authority.
  • A class of merchants could have ruled the Indus Valley Civilization unlike in Egypt & Mesopotamia which were ruled by the priestly class, as there is an absence of temples in IVC sites.
  • Also, the proper layout of streets, the presence of large-scale draining systems, and monumental citadels, all indicate the presence of a strong central government.
  • But, no conclusive evidence is there.

Economic Aspects of the Civilization

  • Trade held a very important place in the life of IVC people which is witnessed by the presence of numerous seals, uniform script & regulated weights & measures.
  • We shall discuss the various economic aspects of the Indus Valley Civilization in detail:

Agriculture

  • Agriculture flourished in IVC due to timely rains & fertile land.
  • IVC inhabitants sowed many crops like rice, wheat, cotton, barley, dates, melon, pea, lentils, mustard, linseed, sesamum, ragi, bajra, jowar, etc.
  • Rainfed crops were pre-dominant as irrigation was based upon rainwater.
  • In Harappa, 3 main varieties of wheat & barley were sown.
  • Wooden plough found in Kalibangan (Rajasthan), Granary found in Mohenjodaro (Pakistan) & evidence of growing Barley found in Banawali (Rajasthan) all indicate the presence of agriculture.
  • The Indus people were the earliest people to produce cotton.
  • They used bulls & oxen for ploughing.
  • Traces of canals have been found at the Harappan site of Shortughai in Afghanistan, but not in Punjab or Sindh.

Trade and Foreign Links

  • Harappans carried on substantial trade in the form of stone, metal, shells, etc.
  • Trade in Indus Valley Civilization was both inter-regional & intra-regional.
  • Metal money was not used instead, trade was carried by a barter system.
  • IVC inhabitants practised navigation on the coast of the Arabian Sea & had set up a trading colony in northern Afghanistan which helped them to trade with Central Asia
  • IVC people also had economic relations with the regions of Tigris, and the Euphrates & also with Mesopotamian and Persian Civilizations.
  • Evidence is provided in the Mesopotamian records which indicate trade relations with ‘Meluha’ (An ancient name given to the Indus region) and also the presence of trading ports called ‘Dilmun’ and ‘Makan’.
  • Mesopotamians imported copper, ivory, pearls & ebony from Meluha and exported garments, perfume, leather products & silver to IVC people.
  • Harappans also did long-distance trade in lapis lazuli, which contributed to the social prestige of the ruling class.
  • Inland transport primarily employed bullock carts.
  • Possibly, Jade came from Central Asia, Turquoise came from Iran, Amethyst came from current Maharashtra and Lapis lazuli came from Afghanistan.
  • The carts and chariots were a means of transport & big boats were used for sea trade.

Seals

  • Seals are one of the greatest artistic creations of the Indus Valley Civilization.
  • About 2000 seals have been discovered and they carry short inscriptions with pictures of one-horned bull, buffalo, tiger, rhinoceros, goat, elephant, etc(excluding horse).
  • In Mohenjo-Daro, three cylindrical seals of the Mesopotamian type have been found which depict their trading relations.

Weights and Measures

  • IVC people used weights & measures for trade and other transactions.
  • Numerous articles used for weights have been found which show that in weighing mostly 16 or its multiples were used.
  • Discovery of ivory scale at Lothal and shells for measuring angles at Saurashtra have been found.

Animal Husbandry

  • IVC people domesticated animals like humped bulls, buffalo, pigs, elephants, donkeys, goats, sheep, etc.
  • Evidence of horses has been found only at Surkotada, which is otherwise absent from the Indus Valley Civilization.

Religious Aspects of the Civilization

  • The unicorn is the most prominent religious figure in Indus Valley Civilization.
  • Unicorn figures had different names like Pashupati/Proto-Shiva, Seven Mothers (Sapta-Matrika) & Compound Creatures.
  • These figurines are now largely inculcated into the Hindu religion.

  • The dominance of the terracotta mother goddess indicates that the IVC society was mainly matriarchal.
  • Evidence that Harappans looked upon the earth as a fertility goddess and worshipped her similarly as the Egyptians worshipped the Nile Goddess ‘Isis’.

  • Proto-Shiva or Pashupati Figurine appears to be the only male deity as depicted on the IVC Seals.
  • Pashupati Figurine is surrounded by 4 wild animals, viz., elephant, tiger, buffalo & rhinoceros.
  • The Pashupati figurine wears a number of bangles, has a headdress and there’s also an inscription of seven letters on the top.
  • IVC inhabitants also believed in the worship of stones in the form of linga (phallus) and yoni (fertility) à Evident in a terracotta figurine found in Kalibangan (Rajasthan).
  • IVC people also practised yoga for both physical exercises as well as performing religious rites.

  • The presence of Sacred Ritual Spot is evident from the excavation of the Great Bath at Mohenjodaro, wherein, all the elites undertook religious baths.
  • Also, tree worship is evident as the peepal tree has been depicted on many IVC seals.
  • Evidence of snake worship & snake charmers is also there.
  • Amulets have also been found in large numbers.
  • No evidence of temples or a sophisticated caste system has been found in Indus Valley Civilization.

Burial Practises of the Civilization

  • Three forms of burial have been found at Mohenjo-Daro:
    1. Complete burial: It means the burial of the whole body.
    2. Fractional burial: It means the collection of some bones after the exposure of the body to wild beasts and bird
    3. Post cremation burial:  Cremation followed by burial of ashes.
  • Dead bodies were placed in the North-South direction and food, pottery, and other items were also put in the grave along with the body
  • Coffins containing bodies have been found in Harappa.
  • Small circular pits containing large urns and pottery have also been found in Kalibangan (Rajasthan)
  • A triangular terracotta cake has been discovered which has a horned deity on one side and an animal on the other side which is an indication of animal sacrifice
  • At Lothal, a pair of male and female skeletons have been discovered together.
  • Surkotada and Dholavira are two sites where the burial practice resembled the megalithic practice.

Indus Valley Civilization: Scientific & Technological Achievements

  • IVC can be called the ‘womb of mathematics’ from where both the concepts of numbers & numerical systems originated.
  • Harappan Numerical System is decimal-based & additive multiplicative in usage.
  • The numerical system which was first used by the Harappan later found its way into other ancient civilizations.
  • IVC inhabitants constructed the world’s first tidal port at Lothal which indicated they had a high degree of knowledge relating to the ebb and flow of tides

  • IVC people were also versed with medical sciences as they used many herbs & drugs to treat diseases.
  • IVC inhabitants also practised ‘Trephination’ to treat migraines and other mental disorders..

Language and Script of the Indus Valley Civilization

  • We don’t have a great deal of knowledge about them as the Harappan Languages & Scripts haven’t been deciphered yet.
  • The style of Harappan Script was that of Boustrophedon, which is written from right to left.
  • The language was mainly pictographic & and was engraved on seals, bones, ivory, etc.
  • Harappan Script virtually disappeared by 1700 BCE which indicates that the Indus Valley Script did not percolate downwards.
  • However, archaeologists have increasingly been finding links between the Indus Script & Tamil-Brahmi Script.
  • In 2019, excavations carried out in the Keezhadi site in Tamil Nadu’s Sivaganga district revealed graffiti dating back to 580 BC which bears a distinct resemblance to the Indus script.

Town Planning in the Indus Valley Civilization

  • Indus Valley Civilization is known for its extensive urban outlook and sophisticated sense of town planning.

  • Most cities of the IVC were divided into 2 parts à Smaller but Higher part on the Western side called ‘Citadel’ or ‘Acropolis’ and a Larger but Shorter part on the Eastern side called the ‘Lower Town’.
  • It is believed that the Citadel was possibly occupied by the members of the ruling class as buildings of prominence such as the Great Bath in Mohenjodaro are located in the citadel.
  • The lower town had common residential buildings which is inhabited by the common people.

  • The use of burnt bricks was common in the construction of houses.
  • Also, the houses in the cities followed a grid system as the city was divided into many blocks.
  • Houses were often of two or more storeys
  • Each house had its own courtyard, windows and bathrooms while some even had their own wells.
  • However, no window faced the streets.

 

  • Also, roads had cut across each other at right angles.
  • The drainage system of the Indus Valley Civilization was also very impressive.
  • The drains were made of mortar, lime & gypsum were slightly sloped and had manholes at regular intervals for cleaning purposes
  • Also, granaries have been discovered at sites like Mohenjodaro used to store grains.

  • At sites such as Dholavira and Lothal (Gujarat), the entire settlement was fortified, and sections within the town were also separated by walls.
  • Chanhudaro was the only Indus Valley city without a citadel.

  • IVC inhabitants are also known to have pioneered irrigation and water harvesting techniques
  • Thus, Indus Valley Civilization people can easily be called the best engineers of their times.

References


  2. ^ Lockard, Craig (2010). Societies, Networks, and Transitions. Vol. 1: To 1500 (2nd ed.). India: Cengage Learning. p. 40. ISBN 978-1-4390-8535-6.
  3. ^ 
  4.  Dani, Ahmad Hassan (1970–1971). "Excavations in the Gomal Valley". Ancient Pakistan (5): 1–177.
  5. ^ Joshi, J.P.; Bala, M. (1982). "Manda: A Harappan site in Jammu and Kashmir". In Possehl, Gregory L. (ed.). Harappan Civilization: A recent perspective. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. pp. 185–195. ISBN 9788120407794. Archived from the original on 21 October 2023. Retrieved 23 May 2023.
  6. ^ A. Ghosh (ed.). "Excavations at Alamgirpur". Indian Archaeology, A Review (1958–1959). Delhi: Archaeol. Surv. India. pp. 51–52.
  7. ^ Ray, Himanshu Prabha (2003). The Archaeology of Seafaring in Ancient South Asia. Cambridge University Press. p. 95. ISBN 978-0-521-01109-9.

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